Chapter 1:ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE: AN INTRODUCTION

Introduction

Environmental science is the systematic study of our environment- natural and human, and our proper place in it. Since the conditions of both worlds affect individual and community, they are essential to our lives, and constitute important components of the environment.  It is essentially an inter-disciplinary approach that brings about an appreciation of changes in our natural and built environment. As an applied science, it seeks to provide answers- practical solutions, to the complex problems of how to make human civilization sustainable within the carrying capacity of the global ecosystems. This is why, it is not just a mere collection of facts about the environment; it is also about the way we all should live. It provides information about the environment at large, but it is expected that this will lead to a concern for your own environment. It is hoped that you will begin to act at your own level to protect the environment. As an inter-disciplinary subject, it draws from many fields of inquiry to help us to understand the planet Earth in which we live, and our appropriate role in it. The most amazing feature of our spaceship Earth is the self-sustaining ecological systems that make life possible for all living beings. In spite of many problems that surround us, the earth is resourceful. However, unprecedented population growth, food shortages, resource scarcity such as energy supplies, air, water and soil pollution, destruction of habitat, loss of biological diversity all poses a serious threat to the carrying capacity of our ecosystems. We realize that these problems encompass our entire planet and require global cooperation to find workable solutions. For example, infant mortality rate has declined in many places. Perhaps we can extend these achievements to other areas. Moreover, we have to develop a genuine interest in conserving natural resources and protecting environment. There are also ethical reasons to believe that nature has a right to continue to exist for its own sake. 

Meaning of Environment

The term 'environment' is derived from the French word ‘Environer’, which etymologically means to encircle. The dictionary meaning of the term ‘environment’ is a surrounding- which denotes the sum total of external factors or conditions- physical, biological and cultural- that directly influence the survival, growth, development, and reproduction of organisms (people, plants, animals, and the microbes) present in a particular area. Literally, everything that surrounds us may collectively be termed as the environment e.g. the air which we breathe, the water which we drink, the land on which we stand, and the soil that supports plant growth and from which we get food.  Environment is, thus, may be defined as “the sum total of land, water and air and the interactions that exists among them and with their living communities including man, plants, animals and microbes”.

The Encyclopedia Britannica (1993) defines environment as “the complex of physical, chemical, and biotic factors that act upon an organism or an ecological community and ultimately determine its form and survival".  Natural scientists have regarded environment as a set of independently present objects and processes. Attention has been given increasingly to the importance of natural cycling of chemical elements, and the effects of human intervention. The theme that the environment denotes- the natural surroundings of human society and the environmental crisis arises from the deliberate manipulation of that external surroundings- has received due attention. Admittedly, the term environment has an essentially relational meaning and that an environment without organisms is not meaningful. Further, since the term 'environment' has often been used in composite sense, it leads to five fundamental questions: What is surrounded? When surrounded? Where surrounded? How surrounded? Why surrounded? Decidedly, the answer to the first question (What) is living object under investigation in general, and man in particular. If man is taken to be surrounded, time become the answer to the second question (When); spatial locational attributes (area or habitat) provide answers to the third question (Where)- this is environment. How and why questions are just the processes and explanations of the environment.

          According to Park (1980), "environment refers to the sum total of conditions which surround man at a given point in space and time". The time dimension is important because the environment for any living organism has never been so constant or static; it has always been changing- slowly or rapidly. In further clarifying the factors, conditions or circumstances that surround an organism or group of organisms, we essentially come up with two environments: natural (bio-physical) and human (socio-cultural) worlds. The natural world consists of all biotic (living) and abiotic (physical or non-living) elements including the energy component- solar radiation (sun light) and geothermal energy. The biotic component consists of flora (plants) and fauna (animals) including human beings and microorganisms. The abiotic component comprises of solid, liquid and gaseous state of the planet Earth representing the lithosphere (solid earth/land- soil and rocks), the hydrosphere (water domain) and the atmosphere (air realm) respectively, that preceded human beings by billions of years, and of which we are a part. These may be further divided into sub-categories or smaller units such as mountains, plain lands, valley, oceans, lakes, rivers, coasts, deserts etc. environments. The physical environment may also be viewed in terms of climatic conditions providing a certain suits of habitats for biological communities such as tropical, temperate and polar environments. These may even have fused together to form 'biome environment' like tundra, temperate and tropical biomes. While such a classification is arbitrary, it helps in organizing and extending our knowledge of the distribution and flow of materials or nutrients into the components. Natural environmental systems operate through self-regulating mechanisms- homeostatic, i.e. any change in natural ecosystems bring about by natural process is counter balanced by changes in other components of the environment. The socio-cultural world includes the complex of social or cultural conditions that affect an individual or community. It may also be called the human world or the world of social institutions and artifacts that we create for ourselves (to suit our purpose by increasing facilities, amenities and convenience) using science, technology and political organization.

          In fact, environment is an inseparable entity which is constituted by the interacting systems of physical, biological and cultural elements that are interlinked individually and a well as collectively in myriad ways.  Accordingly, the term environment should be considered to embrace as a holistic view of the world, which functions dynamically with a multitude of bio-physical components and socio-economic systems, distinguished by their attributes and quality of spatial organization (geographic space) including the mode of behaviour of biotic and abiotic elements. As such, an environment is the "aggregate of all external factors or conditions (both natural and man-made) which influence the activities and existence of all living things including man". 

Man-Environment Relationship

Natural environment is that part of the planet Earth which is relatively untouched by man (not invaded remarkably as yet). From a historical context of the areas where we live, we would see that our surroundings were originally a natural landscape such as a forest, a river, a mountain, a desert, or a combination of these elements. But it is difficult to find any virgin environment of such type that has not been approached by man. Most of us now live in landscapes that have been profoundly modified (e.g. village, towns or cities) by human actions. But even those of us who live in urban areas must get our food supply from surroundings and these, in turn, are dependent on natural landscapes for resources such as food grains, fruits and vegetables, water, fuel fodder, and fish. Thus, our daily lives are inextricably linked with our surroundings and inevitably affect them. For example, we breathe air, use resources from which food is made, use water to drink and for other day-to-day activities- household, industrial and agricultural, and we depend on the community of living plants, animals and microbes which form a web of life, of which we are also a part. Everything that surrounds us forms our environment and our lives depend on keeping its vital system as intact as possible. Our dependence on nature is so great that we can not continue to live without protecting the Earth’s natural resources. In the past (ancient times), people were confined within their narrow environmental limits and had fixed capability to alter their surroundings. But, today we have power to extract and consume more resources, generate more wastes, and modify our world the way we would like it to be- mostly in ways that threaten both our continued existence and that of many organisms with whom we live. 

It may be pointed out that of all the organisms, man is found to be the most intelligent, skilled, organized and civilized The three distinct aspects of man i.e. physical, social and economic have different characteristics and functions. Physical man belongs to a biological community and thus requires basic elements of natural environment i.e. shelter (habitat), air, water and food like other biological species for their survival. Social man establishes social institutions, forms social organizations, formulate policies, principles and laws to safeguard his existence, interest and welfare. Economic man derives and utilizes resources from the environment with his skills and technologies to make his life better. Further, the environment for any living organism including man has never been so constant or static. It has always been changing- sometimes slowly, sometimes rapidly or drastically. Every living species of plants and animals influences its environment and, in turn, are influenced by it. Human beings also are particularly influenced and affected by these changes. However, with increasing scientific knowledge, man is able to modify his immediate environment to suit his basic needs more than any other organisms. This enables human beings to improve the quality of his life. However, today human beings are more equipped with a variety of skills and superior technology which have ruined the natural environment without understanding the repercussions even on their own existence. Environmentalists have alarmed the modern man against the devastating impacts of unscientific and reckless exploitation of natural resources and the environment, and pleaded to save the life on earth. Numerous issues that have been raised on quality of the environment and ecological imbalance are as follows.

The Changing Environment

Major Environmental and Resource Problems: Today, we are confronted with a number of interconnected environmental and resource problems (Figure 1.1). Some of these problems- urban air pollution, acid rain, depletion of stratospheric ozone, and possible climate change due to global warming- result from chemicals we have put into the atmosphere (mostly from burning fossil fuels). Another problem- the continued poisoning of the soil, water and air by pesticides and numerous other toxic wastes, is primarily the result of not relying on pollution prevention. Some other problems- depletion of hydro-carbon (mainly oil), contamination of groundwater, deforestation (mainly in the tropics), soil erosion, conversion of productive cropland and grazing lands into desert (desertification), and loss of bio-diversity (depletion of species)- result from exponentially growing depletion and degradation of Earth capital. Population growth and environmentally harmful forms of economic growth can intensify these problems. These and some other serious problems depict the importance of environmental science education for everyone. What will be our environmental future? What can we do to shape it? How we are going to treat our world? What does it mean for our children and may mean for our future generations is of paramount concern in the 21^st Century. These are, perhaps, the most important questions in environmental science and we trust that is why you are reading this book. Causes of environmental and resource degradation are discussed elaborately in Chapter 4.

 Figure 1.1: Major Environmental and Resource Problems

Environmental Challenges in Bangladesh

• Resources and the Environment: With the increase in population, the pressure on the economy has also increased. This brought in changes in the utilization of resources and in level of emission into air, water and soil. The cumulative impact is the cause of concern for us.

• Economy and Environment: Increased economic activities have gradually shifted our population from rural to urban settings. More land has been converted from agriculture to non-agricultural uses. Many open spaces, previously used as pastures, grazing land, parks, water bodies etc., have now been converted into economic commercial uses. Increased growth in the industrial sector will surely increase the pollution load on air, water and soil.

• Biodiversity: As a consequence of the pressure on resources, the ecosystems of Bangladesh are degrading, populations of various species are declining and many species are threatened with extinction. A total of 201 species of birds, fishes, amphibians, reptiles and mammals are now listed in threatened category by IUCN- the World Conservation Union.

• Water Supply and Sanitation: The state of water supply in the country has sharply deteriorated due to discovery of arsenic in the shallow aquifers throughout Bangladesh. The quality of surface water has also deteriorated owing to the presence of suspended materials in the monsoon season., On top of this, over exploitation will lower the ground water table.

• Natural Disasters: Bangladesh is a disaster prone country. Damage caused by flood has been increasing tremendously. Damage inflicted by erosion in the flood prone areas is also high. Impact of cyclones on the environment is also quite high. Finally, global warming is also a major threat to the environment of Bangladesh. It is reported that 5800 ha of land along the shoreline would be lost by 2030 while 11,200 ha would be lost by 2075 owing to sea level rise. Penetration of saline water into the Sundarban forest caused by sea level rise would destroy the largest mangrove forest in the world in the south-western part of Bangladesh. It would be an environmental catastrophe for this century. 

Need for Environmental Education

Environment plays a key role in supporting life on Earth. Almost everything that we need to survive (air, water, soil, energy etc.) comes from the environment. In fact, the quality of all living things depends on the health and welfare of the world ecosystems that provide us food, other environmental resources and ecologic services. However, we are ruining the environment unknowingly. A proper awareness of the problems related with natural ecosystems, biodiversity, their degradation and conservation is lacking even in many literates of our society. Environmental illiteracy is a must and unavoidable. A number of ecologically damaging activities could be stopped simply by informing people who indulge such activities about their consequences. Individuals, communities and human society as a whole should adequately acquire the skills, and posses will and experience to act solely as well as collectively to face the problems of environment. In this regard, environmental education can foster a positive pattern of conduct towards the proper use of natural resources. Resources available to mankind during the pre-industrial period could have supported a life of moderation, simplicity and economy for a much longer duration without straining the natural ecosystems. After the Industrial Revolution, however, industrial countries of the world have acquired the affluence and prosperity at the cost of environment. It is the right time now to pause and think to re-orient our priorities, change our attitudes and even modify our life styles if necessary.

          The resources of the world are definitely enough for man's needs but not for his greed. With proper management, just and equitable distribution we can feed almost every mouth on earth's surface. However, the irony is, the world is divided today into nations, races, communities, the riches and the poor, the privileged (affluent) and the deprived (poor). The later group, unfortunately, constitute a majority in today's world who are living from hand to mouth, and struggling just for survival. Because of poverty, they are forced to over harvest natural resources for their subsistence, and thus over-strain the ecosystems. Issues related to the environmental degradation are continuing to be ignored in favour of economic considerations. It is likely to be continued as long as gross injustices in the pattern of acquisition and distribution of natural resources prevail.  The establishment of new economic order both at the national and international levels, which provides for the deprived and the needy, is necessary if we are to expect positive results from the millions of inhabitants in the Third World. In fact, most of the local people, natives and indigenous tribes in tropical and sub-tropical countries of the world possess an intimate knowledge of nature, medicinal plants, wildlife and the environment. Taboos, traditions and religious believes deeply rooted in these populations have been an effective instrument for conserving nature and wildlife from the time immemorial. For example, the taboos of Tukano Indians of Brazil have safeguarded more than 60 percent of their neighbouring streams as fish sanctuaries. It is disappointing that these healthy traditions are fading away, and so are as the indigenous tribes in many parts of the world that are getting modernized at a rather fast rate. With these tribes gone, taboos and traditions forgotten, and believes abandoned, we are more likely to lose an effective means of conservation of natural resources and wildlife. Environmental education should make effort to protect as much as possible of this accumulated wisdom of the past, while modern technology and scientific knowledge transforms these tribes into modern communities. So, it should be in our own interest to safeguard our Earth's capital and natural ecosystems instead of absorbing or plundering it into the flow of GNP, and the best way to do this is through environmental education.

With the 1^st decade of 21^st Century, environmental education has now become a new paradigm of development thinking, which can meet the challenges of a rapidly changing world. Environmental education has a key role to play in motivating people to adopt environment friendly practices. It is irrational to expect people to act in appropriate manner without awareness of the problem, its causes, impacts on our daily life, and the long term consequences. Many environmental and resource problems are there simply because so many people are unaware about those. A little effort, a little care exercise by each informed individual in the society could make a significant difference to eliminate the entire problem. Starting from the grass-root levels, environmental education should involve all segments of our society and should be able to create a positive impact in environmental restoration. The prime goal of environmental education programs is to raise public awareness about general environmental conditions including knowledge about environmental problems and issues resulting mostly from anthropogenic activities. It motivates people to protect environment and conserve resources including indigenous knowledge, culture and tradition friendly to the environment; promote understanding and cooperation among people to face ecological challenges. It discovers the symptoms and root cause of environmental degradation, and aims to create consciousness based on environmental ethics that foster understanding about the ecological inter-dependence of economic, social and political factors.

           Environmental education also makes people conscious about the environment both scientifically and socially. It teaches mankind that the earth is not his exclusive domain. The nature- beautiful mountain ranges, hills, oceans, rivers, lakes, forests, soils- all are the gifts of nature and exist for all, not just for us. Other organisms such as plants, animals-birds, and microbes- insects have the equal right to co-exist with human being. Although men is gifted with highest intellect among the all living beings in this universe, there are others who's right can not be ignored or denied as they are abide by the same rules and laws of nature. Enhanced knowledge about the environment brings attitudinal and behavioural changes, leading to community empowerment and mobilization. Changes in values, attitudes and individual behaviour towards the environment can certainly result in a better quality of corporate life. In fact, environmental education is evolving to be the education for life (some prefer sustainable development). Because, it is preparing people to plan and undertake appropriate measures for addressing most pressing challenges of our time at all levels- from global down to local. It helps students to gain knowledge, develop skills and analytic abilities that prepare them to solve real-world environmental problems. It also seeks to provide facts, information, answers, opinions, or the right mix of skills to make rational decisions and take environmentally sound actions. It neither advocates a particular viewpoint nor admires any definite course of action. Instead, it teaches individuals how to weight various sides of an issue through critical thinking and enhances their own problem solving skills through participatory decision making process. In doing so, action is both a vehicle for and an outcome of environmental education.  So, it should be in our own interest to have a working knowledge and general understanding of the environment where we live.

          The National Environmental Education Act (1990) passed by the United States recognizes two broad goals: (1) to improve understanding among the general public for the natural and built environment and the relationships between humans and their environment, including global aspects of environmental problems, and (2) to encourage post-secondary students to pursue careers related to the environment. Already much has been said above concerning the first goal. With respect to the second goal, it can be pointed out that the need for environmental educators and environmental professionals opens up many new job opportunities in this field. Scientists are needed to understand the natural world and the effects of human activity on the environment. Lawyers are needed to develop government and industry policy, laws, and regulations to protect the environment. Engineers are needed to develop technologies and products to clean up pollution and to prevent its production initially. Economists, geographers, and social scientists are needed to evaluate the cost of pollution and resource depletion, and also to develop solutions that are socially, culturally, politically and economically appropriate for different regions of the world. Further, business will be looking for new group of environmentally literate managers and responsible executives/ leaders who appreciate how products sold and services rendered affect our environment. In fact, trained people are essential in these professions at every level, from technical to top managers. We need many more teachers at every level who are trained in environmental education. Outdoor activities and natural sciences are important components of this mission, but environmental topics such as responsible consumerism, solid and toxic waste disposal, and respect for nature should be incorporated into reading, writing, arithmetic and every part of education. Environmental education is a continuous life-long process. The following are some guidelines for an environmental education program, suggested by the Minnesota Office for Environmental Educations (1993). 

• Natural context: An environmentally educated person understands the scientific concepts and facts that underlie environmental issues and the interrelationships that shape nature.
• Social Context: An environmentally educated person understands how human society is influencing the environment, as well as economic, legal, and political mechanisms that provide avenues for addressing issues and situations.
• Valuing context: An environmentally educated person explores his or her values in relation to environmental issues; from an understanding of the natural and social contexts, the person decides whether to keep or change those values.
• Action context: An environmentally educated person becomes involved in activities to improve, maintain, or restore natural resources and environmentally quality for all.

Criteria for Environmental Literacy

Environmental literacy is a basic understanding of the natural and human (built) environments and the relationship between biotic and abiotic components. Environmental literacy simply means the capacity of an individual to understand the complex environmental problems in order to enable himself//herself for analysis, synthesis, evaluation, and ultimately sound decision making at a citizen's level. Environmentally literate citizens will have the knowledge, skills and sensitivity to address environmental problems in their professional capacity, and to routinely include the environment as one of the major consideration in their work and daily living. Environmental literacy is about feeling, actions and practices grounded in familiarity of the problems and sound knowledge of the environment. According to William K. Reilly (the former EPA administrator), every citizen should be fluent in the principles of ecology and should also have a "working knowledge of the basic grammar and underlying syntax of environmental wisdom". Environmental literacy can help create a stewardship ethic- a sense of duty and responsibility to care for and wisely manage our natural resources and the environment. Environmental literacy prepares us for life in the 21st century. The multidisciplinary nature of environmental problems, interactions between individual and society at decision making levels and their effect on the development efforts require a comprehensive environmental literacy course including dimensions such as bio-physical, social, economic, political, ethical and institutional/ organizational. It is often challenging to teach environmental science course in a uniform manner, because of the complex multi-dimensional nature of environmental systems, the roles of individual and corporate decision making with regard to the economy, society, ways of life and technological orientation. Although many people have varying degrees of knowledge and comprehension about the components of bio-physical environment and their interactions either because of their personal interest or exposure to media, the ideal scheme of learning or gaining environmental literacy should involve a student--centered participatory process in which there is enough scope for revelation, correction and enhancement of their existing framework of knowledge. Specific objectives proposed by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA, USA) to realize the broad goals of environmental education include:

• an awareness and appreciation of our natural and human (build) environment- socio-cultural;
• knowledge of natural systems and basic ecological concepts;
• acquaintance with a broad range of current and emerging environmental issues; and
• Experience and the ability to use analytical skills (investigative and critical-thinking) in solving environmental problems.

In order to realize these objectives, a three-fold classification of environmental education based on different disciplines such as science, social sciences (environmental studies), and environmental engineering (the study of technical processes used to minimize environmental pollution and degradation) may be suggested. The concern of this book is, however, environmental science (study of the processes of environmental components which lead to environmental damage) for sustainable environmental and resource management, and it also deals with environmental disturbances and minimization of their impacts through changes in the approaches of social sciences. 

 The Nature of Environmental Science

Human society and the natural world are changing at an unprecedented rate. Alterations in our economic, social, technological and environmental systems have created many new challenges and intensified many existing ones. The ways in which different groups have responded to these challenges have led to new patterns of spatial and environmental organization. These have been accompanied by growing concerns about the need for sustainable development, effective resource management, and the quality of human life in the long run. Environmental science considers many of the key issues that arise from these new challenges.

Environmental science examines major environmental issues of present time and focuses on potential environmental situations in future. It develops awareness of the importance, beauty and wonders that exists and can be found in the environment, and try to develop response to the challenge of moving towards an ecologically and socially sustainable world. It discovers the symptoms and root causes of environmental degradation, and provides opportunity for making sound decisions. In doing so, it fosters and stimulates a sense of personal responsibility, higher motivation, and greater commitment towards peaceful resolution of adverse environmental conditions. It also develops the skills necessary to identify alternative courses of action, clarify the values associated with alternatives, and make decisions on the basis of alternative choices. It emphasizes active participation in prevention and solution to problems. To develop critical thinking and problem-solving skills, it promotes cooperation among stake holders and policy makers.

In comparison to more theoretical disciplines, environmental science is problem-focused, mission-oriented, inclusive, holistic, and interdisciplinary in nature. It is evolving internally by becoming more policy-relevant and self-critical. These are healthy developments from a management perspective, but in no way they remove the fundamentals of the scientific tradition. That means, environmental science seeks to synthesize new, valid and generalized information about the natural world and our impacts on it. It also uses the information to improve the ways we treat our world. However, obtaining such information does not go without responsibility to get involved in trying to do everything possible and meaningful about the problems we have created. From time to time, we should pause to think and ask ourselves: what is our proper place and role in nature? What should we do and what can be done to protect this irreplaceable habitat that produces food and supports us. These are some of the fundamental questions of environmental science. To ensure a sustainable future both for ourselves and our next generations, we need to understand with new outlook how our world works, what we are doing to it, and what can be done to make it better place to live, especially by protecting and improving it.  According to Cunningham (2003) Environmental Science is "the systematic study of our environment and our proper place in it". For this book, we will, however, use the following working definition of environmental science which includes the study of:

• the protection of human populations from the adverse effects of environmental degradation;
• the protection of the natural environment (local, regional and global) from the potentially deleterious effects of human activities (by legislative actions and policy formulation);
• the conservation and management of natural resources (by establishing legal measures, imposing rules and regulations);
• the improvement and maintenance of environmental quality for human health and well being; and
• the adaptation of advanced technology with minimum negative impacts on the environment

Who is Environmental Scientist?

With this definition, environmental science has been equated with ecology- a term derived from the Greek word ‘Oikos”- meaning a place to live. Ecology is one of the disciplines constituting the core of environmental science which study how nature operates and interacts. In other words, it is a study of the processes, connections and interaction among various components of the environment- biotic and abiotic (discussed in Chapter 3). Most ecologist, therefore, define ecology as the study of the relationship between organisms and their environment. Alternatively, the study of structure and function of the ecosystem and the interactions that occur among and between organisms, and with their (immediate) environment is the science of ecology. While other disciplines can also study the interactions of life and the environment, ecologists are concerned about what limits life, how living things use resources such as energy and minerals, and how living things interact with one another and with their non-living environment. Ecology is the study of these processes. The investigators who conduct such studies are called ecologists. The goal of ecology is to understand the interactions in this thin global skin of air, water, soil and organisms. In order to provide answers to the environmental problems, we need to understand how the ecosystems works (functions) in the natural state, and what might happen when human beings interrupt this process (see Chapter 3 for details). In such a manner, many scientists view ecology and environmental science as synonymous. This is one of the reasons why environmentalists are often considered, frequently referred and mostly confused with ecologists. Actually, anyone interested in the subject matter and concerned about the environment is an environmentalist.

 Scope of Environmental Science

Environmental science is relatively a new field of knowledge. It views the environment from a holistic perspective which emphasizes the interrelatedness of economic, social, political and environmental systems, and of the world's nations and regions. It transcends the branches of knowledge, attitudes and skills by seeking commitment to action in an informed, rational and sustained manner. While some of the concerns of environmental science are global in scope, it recognizes also the value of local indigenous knowledge, practices and perceptions in promoting the idea of sustainability.

Environmental scientists work on subjects like the understanding of earth processes, ecosystems, natural resources management, evaluating alternative energy systems, environmental pollution control and mitigation, natural disasters, and the effects of global climate change and sustainable society. Environmental issues almost always include an interaction of physical, chemical, and biological processes. Environmental scientists bring a systems approach to the analysis of environmental problems. Key elements of an effective environmental scientist include the ability to relate space and time relationships as well as quantitative analysis.

Environmental science came alive as a substantive, active field of scientific investigation in the 1960s and 1970s driven by (a) the need for a multi-disciplinary approach to analyze complex environmental problems, (b) the arrival of substantive environmental laws requiring specific environmental protocols of investigation, and (c) the growing public awareness of a need for action in addressing environmental problems. Events that spurred this development included the publication of Rachael Carson's landmark environmental book Silent Spring along with major environmental issues becoming very public, such as the 1969 Santa Barbara oil spill.

However, it has long been held that environmental science equates with 'earth's science'. For the most part this is still the case, at least in the content of environmental science courses in higher education, especially in the United Kingdom (UK). But, it is becoming less so in continental Europe and in the United States, where interdisciplinary and broad-based courses are more commonly available. It is becoming more fashionable now to label any science-based course as 'green course', especially in those specialist environmental programs that are aimed to provide vocational education for various kinds of environmental practitioner. As an emerging discipline, environmental science should provide students with an opportunity to experience the interdisciplinary nature of the subject. Environmental science should educate students in the fundamentals of natural and social sciences along with the major environmental issues. As this program provides a holistic view of the environment and human-environment relationships, students undertaking ES course are expected to acquire the right mix of knowledge and skills to be successful in careers related to the environment.

An understanding of the functioning of the environment requires the knowledge from a wide range of disciplines mentioned above. Today, we see that modern environmental science is becoming increasingly interdisciplinary, developing students' for a better understanding of the environment (drawing upon a range of disciplines from the natural and social sciences), preparing people for global citizenship and training them to be flexible, yet competent analysts and decision makers. Obviously, these objectives can not be easily reconciled and harmonized in one subject area. Interdisciplinary approach differs from multidisciplinary approach in the sense that the former draws upon common themes of process and evolution that embraces both physical and social systems, and usually requires collaboration between teachers, students and the phenomena under investigation. It also means taking a more negotiated science into policy realm and engaging with the public. This is because societal understanding is vital to the conduct of science under conditions of great uncertainty, value conflict and data ambiguity. For example, there is evidence of methane production from rice paddies that varies by a factor of 200. Similarly, the allocation of say carbon taxes depends critically on data gathering and negotiation. Interdisciplinary approach may, therefore, be equated with 'out-reach' science or 'civic science'. Multidisciplinary approach, on the other hand, draws upon a variety of disciplines for information, analysis and insights, but does not seek to provide a broader and more integrated understanding of what and why questions, although this is administratively easier to carry out.  

Regardless of the choice of approach and orientation in environmental science, for an increasing number of environmental issues the difficulty is not to identify remedies. Remedies are well understood by now. The main problem is to make them economically, politically and socially acceptable. Farmers know how to bring more and more land under crop production through intensification of agriculture, but not how to manage problems associated with modern agricultural practices i.e. irrigation- salinization, waterloging, overuse chemical fertilizes, herbicides, pesticides, and insecticides). Foresters know how to plant trees, but they may not know how to get the forest management work done by the communities (establish conditions under which villagers in LDCs can manage plantations for themselves). Similarly, scientists know how to control environmental pollution, but they hardly know anything as how to persuade industries to install the necessary equipment. Like wise, city planners, engineers and architects know how to make plan to construct road, build houses and design safe drinking water supply systems, but they seldom know how to make those economically accessible to the poor. The solutions to these problems progressively involve natural as well as human social systems. It is a wonderful time to be an environmental scientist as environment is everybody's concern. It is expected that you will definitely find some role to play in environmental science as you proceed with this book. You can be sure that whatever you views on the subject matter now, you will have changed your stance in a decade or so. Such is the dynamism of the subject matter and its methods of inquiry.

The New Look of Environmental Science

Both industry and NGOs are now adapting to new look of environmental science. Industry has become overwhelmed by the plethora of international treaties, regulations and codes of practice that are demanded of it by international public organizations such as UNDP, UNEP, European Union and the various trading blocks. In addition, much more modern national legislation is influenced by these international agreements as well as by forceful public opinion. This places a great deal of reliance on science and independent analysis, as well as on cleaner and safe living conditions. Now, industry is beginning to forge alliances with environmental scientists across a wide array of themes- environmental accounting, cost benefit analysis, environmental impact assessment, risk management, eco-auditing and trouble shooting new regulations, especially covering the use of ethical investment analysis and environmental assessors. At the same time industry is providing very fertile ground for environmental science research. It creates case studies, generate good data sets and identify interesting problems that can only be solved by creative interaction. Meanwhile, the environmental pressure groups are also hiring scientists and liaising with research institutions. All the major international groups such as Green Peace, Friends of the Earth, and the World Wide Fund for Nature, IUCN and BELA in Bangladesh have a science group responsible for reviewing scientific information and spotting gaps or flaws. Campaigners in these organizations are usually found at major science congresses, and are actively connected to computerized science information flows. Nowadays, there is a formative between the NGOs, industry, government and academia that is pushing the whole environmental science forward. The net result is an extension of science into the world of polities, commerce and social change. This extended science has been termed ‘civic science’ by the American political analyst Kai Lee (1993). Civic science is the process through which scientific analysis opens up its work to public involvement and responsiveness- ‘social judgement to future options’.  In almost all the major environmental issues that will be touched in this book, environmental science has a vital role as guide commentator for public response and approval. This is the interdisciplinary science for next generation.

 A Brief History of Environmentalism

Environmentalism is fairly a new movement in the world. It has gained momentum in recent years and is now a top priority in national policies in both developed and developing countries. The movement, however, can be better understood with reference to its development in the United States of America (USA), a major industrial case.

Past: Environmental movement began about 50 years ago in the USA although it had its roots in the late 19^th Century, when some people realized that the rare wild species of the U.S. were disappearing. Many historians consider the publication of book entitled “Man and Nature” in 1864 by geographer George Perkins Marsh as the wellspring of environmental protection in North America. Largely as a result of his book, national forest reserves were established in the USA in 1873, mainly to protect dwindling timber supplies and endangered watersheds. Among those influenced by Marsh’s warnings were President Theodore Roosevelt and his chief conservation advisor, Gifford Pinchot who promoted the conservation of public lands in the USA.

Modern Environmentalism: The tremendous industrial expansion during and after the Second World War added a new set of concerns to the environmental agenda of the United States.  A mighty wave of national resource conservation began during the shortened administration of John F. Kennedy (1961-63) and expanded under the administration of Lyndon B. Johnson (1963-68). The milestone marking the birth of the environmental movement was the publication of the book Silent Spring by Rachel Carson in 1962.  In Silent spring, Carson exposed the perils of the indiscriminate use of pesticides, particularly DDT (dichloro diphenyl trichloroethane), and documented the pollution of air, water, soil and wildlife from pesticides. This influential book inspired a new public awareness that human beings were harming the environment- the threats of pollution and toxic chemicals to humans as well as other specie. The movement Carson engendered might be called environmentalism because its concerns are extended to include both environmental resources and pollution. Since the 1960s the movement has grown dramatically. Among the pioneers of this movement are activist David Brower and scientist Barry Commoner. Brower introduced many of the techniques of modern environmentalism, including litigation, intervention in regulatory hearings, book and calendar publishing, and using mass media for publicity campaigns. Commoner, who was trained as a molecular biologist, has been a leader in analyzing the links between science, technology and society. Both activism and research remain as hallmarks of the modern environmental movement.

 In 1964, Congress passed the Wilderness Act. The Act authorized the government to protect underdeveloped tracts of public land as part of the National Wilderness System. Between 1965 and 1970, the emerging science of ecology received widespread media attention. At the same time, the popular writings of biologists such as Paul Ehrlich, Barry Commoner and Garrett Hardin awakened people to the interlocking relationships among population growth, resource use and pollution. Under the leadership of a number of other brilliant and dedicated activists and scientists, the environmental agenda was thus expanded in the 1960s and beyond to include issues such as human population growth, fossil fuel extraction and use, recycling, air and water pollution, wilderness protection and a host of other problems that are addressed in their popular writings.  General public concern about environmental problems, media attention and action to address these concerns grew rapidly during the 1970s to such an extent that it sometimes called the first decade of environmentalism. During the 1970s, Congress passed several pieces of legislation to help protect the air, water, land and wildlife. Such efforts were boosted by the first annual Earth Day held on 22 April 1970. During this event, some 20 million people in more than 2,000 communities took to the streets to heighten environmental awareness and to demand better environmental quality. Thus, environmentalism has become well established on the public agenda since the first national Earth Day in 1970.

The Gaia Hypothesis: Over the years, environmentalism has gained a considerable momentum and environment has secured an important place on the academic and research agenda. There are many thousands of scientists, philosophers, and lawyers have involved themselves in the movement. James Lovelock is one of the most radical thinkers who formulated the famous Gaia hypothesis (1972)- a philosophy that has been extremely influential for the environmental movement. The Gaia hypothesis suggests a holistic view of the world, where all life on the planet Earth interacts with the physical environment to form a complex system that can be thought of as a single super-organism. Lovelock believed that Earth is a self-regulating system able to keep its climate and chemical composition comfortable for living organisms. In particular, it regulates the geo-chemistry of the oceans, composition of the atmosphere and surface temperature. The system includes all living organisms as well as the near-surface rocks and atmosphere. Lovelocks hypothesis constitutes a new way of viewing the world within a scientific framework. While Gaia might not provide all the answers, it has an important place in the history of the development of environmental awareness.

The era of 1980-1994 in the USA has been labeled as the era of continuing controversy.  In 1981, Ronald Regan- an advocate of less federal control (market economics) became President of the USA.. The net effect of Regan years (1981-88) was to slow down the momentum of environmental protection and resource conservation built up in the 1970s. Although he was an immensely popular President, many people strongly opposed his environmental and resource policies, which prompted strong opposition in Congress, public outrage, and legal challenges by environmental and conservation organizations, whose memberships soared during this period. Upon his election in 1989, although George W. Bush promised to be the environmental president, he often received criticism from environmentalists for failing to provide leadership on such key environmental issues as population growth, global warming, and loss of biodiversity, and for undermining key programs and agreements at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janerio, Brazil, in 1992. Bush was also criticized for neither appointing respected environmentalists to key federal positions nor consulting with environmentalists about environmental policy. Other disappointments included continued support of increased exploration of valuable resources on public lands at gateway prices, and allowing some environmental laws to be undercut by the powerful influence of industry, mining, ranching, and real estate development officials.

In 1993, William Jefferson Clinton- popularly known as Bill Clinton, became the President of the USA, and promised to provide much-needed national and global environmental leadership. But in 1995, after years in office, the new administration’s report card was found as mixed. Most environmentalists gave Clinton an A Grade for selecting Al Gore for Vice President (considered to have a comprehensive understanding of environmental problems and possible solutions), appointing respected environmentalists to key positions in environmental and resource agencies, and consulting with environmentalists about environmental policy. But many gave him a D Grade for not proposing and supporting several key environmental initiatives, failing to put his political weight behind many of his environmental proposals, and being too willing to compromise or even retreat when his proposed environmental policies come under attack. Despite criticism from environmental purists, the Clinton administration had several notable environmental accomplishments. Clinton created the President's Council on Sustainable Development, signed the Kyoto Protocol and stood firm against Republican attempts after the 1994 elections to roll back environmental laws and regulations through the appropriations process. During the Clinton administration, the EPA's budget was increased, and much of the country's natural resources were put under greater protection, such as the restoration of the Everglades and the increase in size of the Everglades National Park.

In concluding remarks, environmentalists warn that we must make up for the momentum lost since 1980 by launching a new Earth Wisdom or Environmental Revolution. Environmentalists call for us to shift our efforts from pollution cleanup to pollution prevention; from waste disposal (mostly burial and burning) to waste prevention and reduction; from species protection to habitat restoration; and from increased resource use to extensive resource conservation. They urge us to use our political and economic systems to reward earth sustaining economic activities and discourage those that harm the earth- the opposite of the current situation in most cases. Among the leaders of this worldwide environmental movement have been British economist Barbara Ward, French/ American scientist Rene Dubos, Norwegian Prime Minister Gro Harlem Bruntdland, and Canadian diplomat Maurice Strong. All have been central in major international environmental conventions, such as the 1972 U.N. Conference on the Human Environment in Stockholm or the 1992 U.N. “Earth Summit” on Environment and Development in Rio de Janiero. Once again, new issues have become part of the environmental agenda as our field of vision widens. We have begun to appreciate the links between poverty, injustice, oppression, and exploitation of humans and our environment. In contrast, many economists contend the view that environmentalists have overestimated the problems we face, and that the solution to our environmental problems involves technological innovation and accelerated economic growth through participation in a global economy. Still there are others, such as members of the mostly industry-supported Wise-Use movement, go further and are actively engaged in a widespread campaign to discredit and weaken the environmental movement in the United States.

Environmental Movement in Bangladesh

Environment is a subject of recent interest in Bangladesh. Initiative for the protection of environment in Bangladesh dates back to as early as 1972 when the United Nations Conference on Human Environment in Stockholm expressed grave concern on the continued environmental deterioration around the globe. As a follow up action of the Stockholm Conference, the Government of Bangladesh had taken up a number of legislative actions to protect the environment. In 1973, a proper environmental law of the present generation was enacted; it was the Water Pollution Control Act. In 1977, Environmental Pollution Control (EPC) Ordinance (Ordinance XIII) was enacted; it was the first regulatory framework to provide guidelines for the control, prevention and abatement of environmental pollution in Bangladesh. The ordinance led to the formation of the Pollution Control Board, which was later transformed into Department of Environment Pollution Control (1982).

In the mid 1980s, there was growing awareness and understanding that the state of the environment of Bangladesh was precarious; the natural resources of the country were being degraded. It was widely held that with this degradation the quality of life and livelihood opportunities for the mass were being compromised. In May 1989, Bangladesh Centre for Advanced Studies (BCAS) held a Seminar in Dhaka on environment and development. The organizer of the seminar followed up the event with seminar proceedings (publication) entitled “Environment and Development” that came out in 1994 in two volumes. With these, there was a comprehensive treatment of multi-dimensional environmental issues of Bangladesh. In thirty chapters (contributed by both Bengali and foreign scholars and development practitioners) a comprehensive picture of Bangladesh environment and its problems was emerged for the first time.

policy guidelines, implement decisions, monitor progress, regulates and controls overall activity for resource conservation and environmental protection. Within it, a new organ- Department of Environment (DoE)- was installed as the technical arm of the ministry. The MoFF is now a permanent member of the Executive Committee of the National Economic Council, which is the principal decision-making body for economic policy matters and public investment projects. Analysts believe that both MoEF and DoE are yet to develop the institutional strength required to adequately meet the challenges of environmental management and protection in Bangladesh.

In 1991, a National Conservation Strategy (NCS) was prepared which had its root in the national awareness of the significance of sustainable environmental management. The NCS is nothing but the blueprint for the integration of both environmental and economic concerns in all development issues. It contains many methods and strategies for ensuring economic growth job done with a sustainable face. In 1992, the “Earth Summit” held in Rio, Brazil created a much wider awareness about the environment. As a signatory, Bangladesh made a commitment to implement the Agenda 21 of the Earth Summit as an integral part of her national program and policy. In the year following the Earth Summit, environmental management had become a higher priority in Bangladesh’s political agenda necessitating legislative action to this end. The National Environment Policy (NEP) of 1992 was an important development in this regard. 

The main objectives of the National Environment Policy (NEP, 1992) are as follows:

• ·        Maintenance of the ecological balance;
• ·        Protection of the country from natural disasters;
• ·        Identification and prevention of all types of activities related to pollution and environmental degradation;
• ·        Ensuring environmentally sound development in all sectors; and also
• ·        Ensuring sustainable management of natural resources and the environment
• ·        Active participation in all international initiatives related to the environment

 The NEP also spelt out plans and policies with specific tasks and obligations for other sectors such as agriculture, fisheries, water, forest and biodiversity, industry, energy, urbanization, population, health, science and technology. It also highlighted the need to ensure the amendment of old fashioned environment-related laws, and also the framing of new legislation as per need.

In 1995, a comprehensive environment protection law, namely- Bangladesh Environment Conservation Act (BNCA) was enacted, replacing the 1977 EPC Ordinance (as already mentioned), empowering the Government’s implementing agency- DoE- to clear environmental requirements for establishing industrial units or projects, improve environmental and resource conservation standards, formulate guidelines, prevent, control, abate and mitigate environmental pollution. The Act lays particular emphasis on emission of smoke by vehicles damaging the environment and identification of ecologically critical areas including conservation of ecosystems.

During 1990-1995, the nexus between environment and national development planning was embodied in the National Environment Management Action Plan (NEMAP). This plan was prepared by the Government, with assistance from the UNDP, through a participatory process, and was believed to be the basis for all programs and interventions aimed at promoting sustainable environmental and resource management, and reversing the current trends of environmental degradation.  Public consultation and people’s participation were the hallmarks of NEMAP, which has identified a number of concerns on environmental issues including poverty alleviation, public health and sanitation, deforestation, pollution, natural disaster, flood control, drainage and irrigation.

The MoEF was given ultimate responsibility as the focal coordinating agency in the implementation of NEMAP. As a follow-up of NAMAP, the Government has executed a 5-year (1998-2002) UNDP funded (US$26.45 million) program- i.e. Sustainable Environment Management Program (SEMP)- largely implemented through different government and non-government agencies, envisaging interventions in different sectors of the country’s economy to bring about an improvement in the deteriorating environmental situation, and to improve simultaneously the financial base of the poor. SEMP is considered to be the largest single instance of development grant/ assistance for environmental management in the world. The capacity building components of SEMP includes: I) policy and institutions, ii) participatory ecosystem management, iii) community based environmental sanitation, iv) awareness and advocacy, and v) training and education. 

Besides, Bangladesh has a wide range of laws and regulations related to environmental issues, many of them date back to pre-independence days and are cross-sectoral in nature. The most important of these laws are the Environment Conservation Act (ECA) of 1995 and the Environment Conservation Rules (ECR) of 1997. The ECR, in fact, spells out specific rules and regulations for enforcement of ECA. Under the ECR of 1997, some 187 industries and projects were grouped into four types, according to the extent of their potential adverse environmental impacts. The four categories are (number of industries/ projects in parentheses): Green (22), Orange A (26), Orange B (69), and Red (69). The ECR actually lays down various procedures to be followed for obtaining Environmental Clearance Permit from DoE in each category. Green category industries/projects are considered the least harmful and are without any potential negative impacts; however, for categories Orange A and B, and Initial Environmental Examination (IEE) is needed, and for the Red category, a full-blown Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is prescribed as mandatory.

According to many commentators, both ECA and ECR cover a wide range of environmental issues, but neither of these is fully comprehensive. Consequently, their long-term impact on environmental sustainability is somewhat constraints so to speak. The DoE now recognizes that the above-mentioned legislation is rather week and needs further treatment for strengthening.

In January 2000, all the environmentalists- expatriate Bengladeshis, local NGOs, research and educational institutions, public entities and individual activists- congregated in Dhaka to drew attention to our threatened environment and prepared an action plan for the country  The International Conference on Bangladesh Environment (ICBEN-2000) was jointly organized by Poribesh Rokkha Sopoth (POROSH), Bangladesh Environment Network (BEN), Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology (BUET), Coalition of Environmental NGOs (CEN)and others in Dhaka. In twenty technical sessions held on 14 and 15 January at BUET, one hundred and twenty four papers were covered under twelve broad topics. The Dhaka Declaration on Bangladesh Environment is the product of this conference which is regarded to be a source material for action in the new millennium and Bangladesh Poribesh Andolon (BAPA) is committed to its implementation. Bangladesh Environment- 2000 is perhaps for the first time such a comprehensive publication on the environment problems in Bangladesh has been compiled by BAPA.

With the awareness of various environmental concerns, Bangladesh made a drastic move at the international policy level; the Government has so far signed, ratified and acceded to at least 27 international conventions, protocols and treaties related to the environment. The important one among those are the Agenda 21 of Earth Summit, UN Convention on Climate Change, Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, Convention on Biological Diversity, International Convention to Combat Desertification, Convention on Trans-boundary Movement of Hazardous and Toxic Wastes, and Kayoto Protocol.

In order to document and demonstrate the Government’s awareness of the need for environmental sustainability, the Fifth Five Year Plan (1997-2002) outlined the following goals and objectives:

Goals:

• • To promote, preserve, nurture and expand nature and natural resources
  • To link all development activities with the environment

Objectives:

• • Promoting sustainable environmental management;
  • Promoting community-based resource management;
  • Ensuring active participation of the poor and women in environmental protection;
  • Preserving, protecting and developing the natural resource base;
  • Promoting environment friendly activities in development interventions;
  • Strengthening the capacity of public and private sectors to address environmental concerns;
  • Preventing and controlling air, water and soil pollution;
  • Creating public awareness for participation in environment related activities; and