Water is the most vital element among the natural resources, and is crucial for our very existence. Without water, life as we know it could not exist. All living organisms including man, all the life supporting process of the earth system is heavily dependent on water. Living cells themselves consist mainly of water. The human body is two-thirds water- an essential nutrient in every function. It helps transport other nutrients and waste products in and out of cells. Water dissolves the carbon dioxide, oxygen and salts present in the body and distribute to the different parts through the process of blood circulation. It is greatly needed for the maintenance of proper body temperature.
Introduction
Water is the most vital element among the natural
resources, and is crucial for our very existence. Without water, life as we know it could not exist. All living organisms including man, all the
life supporting process of the earth system is heavily dependent on water.
Living cells themselves consist mainly of water. The human body is
two-thirds water- an essential nutrient in every function. It helps transport other
nutrients and waste products in and out of cells. Water dissolves the carbon
dioxide, oxygen and salts present in the body and distribute to the different
parts through the process of blood circulation. It is greatly needed for the
maintenance of proper body temperature.
Prior to the Industrial
Revolution, global demand for fresh water was small compared to what freshwater
ecosystems could provide. However, demands for this scarce resource have
increased dramatically in recent times, with the growth in population,
industrialization, and expansion of irrigated agriculture straining the
capacity of freshwater ecosystems. Although many policy makers are aware of the
growing problems of water scarcity, it is only one of many ways by which these
ecosystems are stressed today. Freshwater ecosystems- comprising of rivers,
lakes and wetlands, contain only 0.01 percent the world's freshwater, and
occupy only 1 percent of the Earth's surface. Yet, these vital life support
systems render services of enormous global value- several trillion US dollars,
according to an estimate. Chapter 7 presents information on different aspects
of fresh water ecosystems at global and national levels including topics such
as goods and services, extent, alteration and impacts, supply and distribution,
availability and scarcity, situation in Bangladesh with a focus on the
dimensions of wetlands, ecological importance, degradation, groundwater, water
resources management options and policy considerations.
Goods and Services
As a vital resource, freshwater is needed to supply us
with food, drink, and our other needs and wants. In many parts of the world
where lack of food threatens human survival, it is the lack of fresh water that
limits food production. Among other crucial goods and services of the
freshwater ecosystems, habitat for fish, mitigation of floods, maintenance of
biodiversity, and recreational opportunities are notable. Freshwater ecosystems play a key role in sculpting
earth’s surface, moderating the planet’s climate, diluting pollutants,
degrading some of our wastes, and forming a major habitat for many of the
planet’s aquatic creatures. The most important services revolve around freshwater
supply are: maintaining high water quality, providing a sufficient quantity of
water for domestic consumption and agriculture- mainly for irrigation, and
recharging aquifers- underground water reservoirs. This scarce resource is not only essential for
agriculture, but also for manufacturing, transportation (a route for
transporting people and goods), and countless other human activities. Harnessed by dams
and barrages where feasible, these systems also produce hydro-electricity, one
of the most important renewable sources of the world.
Extent, Alterations and
Impacts
Freshwater systems have been altered since ancient
times, however, the rate of change accelerated markedly in the middle of the 20th
Century. Rivers and lakes have been modified by a number of ways such as
altering waterways, draining wetlands, constructing dams, digging irrigation
channels, and even by establishing connections between water basins i.e.
artificial canals and pipelines to transfer water. These changes have
undoubtedly brought some human benefits- increased agricultural output, flood
control and hydropower, but they also have radically changed the natural water
cycle (hydrological) in most of the world's water basins. Modification of
rivers has greatly changed the way through which river naturally act on the
landscape i.e. in terms of flow, flood etc. In many cases, rivers have become
disconnected from their floodplains and wetlands. Dams have slowed water
velocity in many river systems, converting them to chains of connected
reservoirs; this kind of fragmentations of freshwater systems has changed
patterns of sediment and nutrient transport, affected migratory patterns of
fish species,
created migratory paths for exotic species, and altered the composition of
riparian habitat, eventually contributing to changes in coastal
ecosystems. Since 1950, the number of
large dams (more than 15 m high) in the world has increased nearly seven fold,
from about 5,750 to more than 41,000. In 1998, there were 349 large dams (more
than 60 m high) under construction around the world. The river basins with the
large dams under construction are the Yangtze basin in China with 38; the Tigris and Euphrates basin
with 19; and the Danube with 11. The PAGE
(2000) analysis found that of the 227 major river basins assessed worldwide, 37
percent are strongly affected by fragmentation and altered flows, and 23
percent are moderately affected.
Water diversions and
extractions have profoundly affected river flow on a global scale. The Huang
Ho, Ganges, Nile, Syr Darya, and Amu Darya,
all run dry at the river mouth during the dry season. According to an estimate,
prior to 1960, the Amu Darya and Syr Darya used to discharge 55 billion m3 of
water annually to the Aral Sea, but withdrawals for irrigation during 1980-90
reduced this volume to an annual average of 7 billion m3- 6 percent of the
previous annual flow. By slowing down the movement of water, dams also prevent
large amount of sediment from being carried to downstream- as they normally
would be- to deltas, estuaries, flooded forests, wetlands, and inland seas.
This retention of sediments can affect their water quality, the waste
processing capacity of rivers, species composition and productivity. Since the
slower moving water in reservoirs is not well mixed, is stratified into layers,
with the bottom layers often depleted of oxygen. These oxygen-starved waters
can produce toxic hydrogen sulphide gas, which degrades water quality.
Like other major ecosystems,
freshwater systems harbour a diverse array of species. Twelve percent of all
animal species live in freshwater ecosystems. However, physical alteration,
habitat loss and degradation, water withdrawal, overexploitation, pollution,
and the introduction of exotic species all contribute directly or indirectly to
decline in freshwater species. These varied stresses affecting freshwater
ecosystems occur all over the world, although their particular effects differ
from region to region (watershed). Globally, scientists estimate that more than
20 percent of the world freshwater fish species- of which some 10,000 have been
described- have become extinct, are threatened, or endangered in recent
decades. According to 1996 IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals, 734 species of
fish are classified as threatened; of those, 84 percent are freshwater species.
Supply and Distribution
In terms of fresh water supply, the most resourceful
continents of the Earth are South America and the Asia. Although each continent has about 12 percent
of the total land area of the earth surface, receives about 25 percent of the
total global runoff. On a per capita basis, South America
has the most abundant supply of fresh water.
Only 6 percent of the world population shares its 27 percent of the
total runoff. However, most of the rainfall in South
America occurs in the forested area of the Amazon basin, where
poor soil and inhospitable natural conditions limit human habitation. In the
case of Asia, much of the runoff occurs in areas suitable for traditional
agriculture- a good reason why Asia has nearly
60 percent of the total world population. In terms of per capita water
availability, the richest country in the world is Iceland, with an estimated annual
fresh water supply of 670,000 m3 (177 million gal) per person. This is 6 times
the annual per capita supply in Canada
and the 68 times per capita supply in the United States. By contrast, Bahrain and Kuwait have no renewable water supply;
they depend either on desalinized ocean water or imports. Another important
consideration is the variability in annual global rainfall patterns. Rainfall
is never uniform in either its geographical distribution or its annual amount
received. Every continent has unique areas (regions) where rainfall is scarce
because of topographic effects or adverse climatic conditions. In some areas,
such as the African Sahel region, rainfall occurs in abundance some years but
not others. Cycles of wet and dry years create temporary droughts. There are
even some places on earth where it rains heavily, while other areas receive
less rain or almost no rain at all. At Iquique
in the Chilean desert for instance, no rain has fallen in recorded history. On
the other hand, Cherrapunji in Assam,
India
recorded some 22 m (72 ft) of rain in a single year. What a contrast! Water
shortages have their most severe environmental impact on semiarid zones where
soil moisture availability is the critical factor in determining global distribution
of flora and fauna. Further, with the increase in population and
industrialization, water shortages in already naturally water-short regions of
the world will intensify, and wars over water may erupt as it has already been
observed in many part of the world. Projected global warming might also cause
changes in rainfall patterns and disrupt water supplies, and we can’t predict
which areas might be affected.
Water Scarcity and Availability
Different
kinds of water uses affect the environment being appropriated differently. For
example, much of the water withdrawal (total amount taken from
a lake, river, pond or aquifer for any purpose) is employed in nondestructive
ways and is returned to circulation in a form that can be re-used. Consumption-
the fraction of water withdrawn that is lost in evaporation, transmission,
absorption, chemical transformation or other form of human use is not available
for other purposes readily. Degradation is a change in water
quality due to contamination or pollution so that it is unsuitable for other
uses or service. On a global scale, humans withdraw more than 20 percent of the
total stable supply, the remaining is either too costly to tap (store, ship,
purify or distribute) or there are ecological constraints on its use.
Consumption and degradation together account for about half the water withdrawn
in most developed countries. The remaining half of the water we withdraw would
still be worthwhile for further uses as long as we could protect it from
contamination and make it available to potential consumers. Table 7.1 shows
global water availability between 1995 and 2025.
Table 7.1: Global Water Availability,
1995 and 2025
|
Status
|
Water supply (m3/person)
|
Population (millions), 1995
|
Percentage of total, 1995
|
Population (millions), 2025
|
Percentage of total, 2025
|
|
Scarcity
|
<500 500-1000
|
1,077 587
|
19 10
|
1,783 624
|
25 9
|
|
Stress
|
1,000-1,700
|
669
|
12
|
1,077
|
15
|
|
Adequacy
|
>1,700
|
3,.091
|
55
|
3,494
|
48
|
|
Unallocated
|
|
241
|
4
|
296
|
4
|
|
Total
|
|
5,665
|
100
|
7,274
|
100
|
Source: World Resources Institute, 2001
Freshwater
Shortages
The availability of fresh water determines the
location and activities of human on the earth perhaps more than any other
environmental factors. Fresh water is essential for nearly every human endeavor.
It has the potential for being reused many times. However, water is a major
limiting factor of the environment- both natural and human. The growing world
population is placing great pressure on this scarce resource, creating
long-lasting water shortages in many parts of the world. Major reasons that
have been identified with the water shortages are: (i) growing demand, (ii)
unequal distribution, and (iii) increasing contamination or pollution of
existing freshwater supplies. The
problem of water scarcity is striking the global community. Studies suggest
that over the past century, global water
use by human being has increased about twice as fast as population growth. Given a fixed
supply of water and a growing population, however, the amount of freshwater
available has been decreasing. According to an estimate (calculated on a global
basis), between 1950 and 2000, annual availability of water per person
decreased from 16,800 m3 to 6,800 m3 per year. Humans now withdraw more than 20
percent (about 4,000 km3 of water) of the normal flow of the world freshwater
annually. Between 1990 and 1995, withdrawals increased more than six fold. The average amount of water withdrawn worldwide is
about 646 m3 per person per year by some other estimate.
However, this overall (world)
average musk a grim reality- discrepancies in the real world water situation-
as water supplies are unevenly distributed around the world, with some regions
containing abundant supply and other a much more limited (Table 7.2). In river
basins in arid and populous regions of the world, the proportion can be much
higher. As one might expect, those
countries with low population base and plentiful water supplies withdraw a very
small percentage of the water available to them. Canada,
Brazil and Congo for
instance, withdraw less than 1 percent of their annual runoff. By contrast, Libya and Israel surface and groundwater
withdrawal together account for more than 100 percent of their renewable
supply. Regardless of the regional variations, in river basins with
relatively high water demand (compared to the available runoff), water scarcity
is a growing problem.
Table 7.2: Water
Shortages by Region
Region Percent *
Middle East & North
Africa 71
Sub-Saharan Africa 26
East Europe & former USSR 22
Other Europe 20
East Asia and Oceania 7
Latin America & Caribbean 5
Canada & United
States 0
South
Asia 0
Source: World Bank, 1992
* Percentage of population
living in regions with less
than 2000 cubic meters per person per year
According to the PAGE
analysis, 41 percent of the world's population lives in water scarce river
basins. In other words, 2.3 billion people live in river basins under water
stress, where per person water availability is less than 1,700 m3/ per year. Of
these, some 1.7 billion people reside in highly stressed river basins where
annual water availability is less than 1,000 m3/ person. Assuming current water
consumption patterns continue, PAGE experts project that by 2025 at least 3.5
billion people- or 48 percent of the world's population- will live in
water-stressed river basins. Of these, 2.4 billion will live under conditions
of high water stress. Even water surplus regions (e.g. northeast Brazil, southern Africa, central India, eastern Turkey,
northwest Iran, and mainland
Southeast Asia) may in fact face significant
water shortages during dry season. The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) has
predicted that if the present pattern and trend in water use continues, by 2025
two out of every three individuals in the world will live in a condition of
water shortage. Already 14 countries in Africa
were facing shortage of water by 2000. Another 11 countries of the world are
expected to be included to this list in the next 25 years.
Water experts frequently warn
that water availability will be one of the major challenges facing human
society in the 21st Century. It is the lack of this water which will
be one of the key factors that will hinder development. According to an UN
estimate (1997), one-third of the world population presently live in countries
experiencing moderate to high water stress. Although
water use is stabilizing in developed countries, demand will increase in
developing countries where supplies are abundant. With the increase in populations,
water scarcity is projected to increase significantly in the next decades,
affecting half of the world's people by 2025.
Availability
and Uses
Among important uses of
freshwater systems, domestic, industrial and agricultural sectors are by far the
best categories by class of service. Worldwide,
agriculture claims about 69 percent of total water withdrawal, ranging from as
high as 93 percent of all water used in India
to only 4 percent in Kuwait.
The downside of agricultural water withdrawal is that in most places,
agricultural water use is highly consumptive and inefficient. Typically, from
70 to 90 percent of the water withdrawn for agriculture never reaches the crops
for which it is intended. The most common type of irrigation is simply to flood
the whole field. As much as half is lost through evaporation or seepage from
unlined irrigational canals supplying water to fields. Most of the rest runs
off, evaporates, or percolates into the field before it can be used. Further, the runoff from fields is often
contaminated with soil, fertilizer, pesticides, and crop residues, making it
low quality.
Worldwide,
industry accounts for about 25 percent of all water use, ranging from 70
percent of withdrawal in some European countries, such as Germany, to only 5 percent in less developed
countries such as Egypt and India. Cooling
water for power plants is by far the single most industrial use of water,
typically accounting for 50 to 100 percent of industrial withdrawal. However,
unlike agriculture, only a small fraction of this water is consumed or
degraded. Much of the remaining water used by other industries (e.g. metal
smelting and fabrication, petroleum refining, pulp and paper manufacturing,
textile mills, fertilizer, cement and food processing) could be recycled and
used over again in the factory. This would have benefits both in extending
water supply and in protecting water quality. The Third
World countries, although typically allocate only about 10 percent
of their water withdrawal to industry, this pattern of use could change rapidly
as they industrialize.
More
than one-third of the world’s population- 2 billion people- now lack safe
drinking water or adequate sanitation. The World Health Organization considers
2000 m3 (53,000 gal) of good water per person per year to be the minimum for a
healthy life. Some 40 countries in the world fall below this level. The
proportion of people living in water poor countries is high in Africa and the Middle East. Some countries situations are much worse
than other. In Mali, for
example, some 88 percent of the population lacks clean water; in Ethiopia it is
94 percent. There is also an urban-rural dichotomy as rural people generally
have less access to clean water than do city dwellers. In the 33 worst affected
countries, 60 percent of urban people can get clean water as opposed to only 20
percent of those living in the countryside.
Groundwater: A Case of the United States
In the United
States of America, for example, groundwater
is the source of nearly 40 percent of the freshwater for agricultural and
domestic use. Nearly half of all Americans and about 95 percent of the rural
population depend on groundwater for drinking and other domestic purposes.
Overuse of these supplies causes several kinds of problems including drying of
wells, natural springs, and disappearance of surface water features such as
wetlands, rivers, and lakes. In many areas of the United States, groundwater is being
withdrawn from aquifers faster than natural recharge can replace it. On a local
level, this causes a cone of depression
in the water table. A heavily pumped well can lower the local water table so
that shallower wells go dry. On a broader scale, heavy pumping can deplete a
whole aquifer as happened in the Ogallala aquifer in the arid high plains
between Texas and North
Dakota, U.S.A.
Many aquifers have been slow recharge rates and it may take thousands of years
to refill them once they are emptied. When we pump water out of a reservoir
that cannot be refilled in our lifetime, we essentially are mining a
nonrenewable resource. Such is the case of Ogallala aquifer where wells have
dried up in many places and farms, ranches, even whole towns are being
abandoned. Covering aquifer recharge zones with urban or other development or
diverting runoff that once replenished reservoirs ensures that they will not be
refilled. Withdrawal of large amounts of groundwater also causes porous
formations to collapse, resulting in subsidence
or settling of the surface above. The U.S. Geological Survey estimates that
the San Joaquin valley in California
has sunk more than 10 m in the last 50 years because of ground water pumping.
Around the world, many cities are experiencing subsidence. Many are coastal
cities built on river deltas or other unconsolidated sediments Flooding is
frequently a problem as these coastal areas sink below sea level. Some inland
areas are also affected by severe subsidence. Mexico City- built on an old
lakebed is one of the worst examples of such subsidence. Some areas of the city
have sunk as much as 8.5 m (25.5 ft). The Shrine of Guadalupe, the Cathedral,
and many other historic monuments are sinking at odd
Freshwater
Situation in Bangladesh
Bangladesh is richly endowed
with freshwater supply, and it is one of the most precious of natural resources
in the ordinary lives of Bangladeshi people. The Freshwater in Bangladesh
derives from underground and surface water sources- a network of dense river
systems within the country, combining both upstream inflows and runoff produced
by rainfall. Another source of freshwater, though at limited scale, is the
Kapti Lake that extends up to 742 km2 in October (end of wet season), and
shrinks to 268 km2 in April (end of dry season). The numerous fishponds are
also a good source of freshwater, totalling a water surface area of about 1,800
km2. There is one more source of fresh water in Bangladesh, and that is the
groundwater.
Freshwater
is the most vital element among the natural resources, and is crucial for the
survival of all living organisms including human being. The economic growth and
development of Bangladesh
are highly influenced by its availability both spatially (surface and ground)
and temporally (seasonal aspects). Spatial and seasonal availability is
responsive to the nature of physiographic condition and monsoon climate of the
country. As the lower riparian of the three major river systems, the Ganges-Padma,
the Brahmaputra and the Meghna (GBM), Bangladesh constitutes about 8
percent of the combined catchment area. Over 92 percent of the runoff generated
annually in the GBM catchment areas flows to the Bay of Bengal through Bangladesh. The
contribution of local rainfall to the annual surface runoff is about 25 percent
with marked seasonal variation.
However,
freshwater uses in Bangladesh
have been far from being satisfactory. According to an estimate (1993), annual
per person use of freshwater in Bangladesh
is 211 m3, much lower than the global average of 660 m3. Water supply in urban
areas is even much below than the national average, and the problem is going to
be worse due to the rapid growth of the urban population. From a supply side
perspective, however, the internal renewable freshwater availability in the
country is over 11,000 m3 per capita; the corresponding world average is less
than 8000 m3 per capita. The largest use of water is made for agriculture,
mostly in irrigation. Some other uses include domestic, municipal, industrial,
fishery, forestry and navigation. Factors causing water abundance and scarcity
are presented in 7.3 with their environmental impacts.
Table 7.3: Factors Causing Water
Abundance and Scarcity in Bangladesh
with their Impacts
Pressures Impacts
Water
abundance (wet season)
·
Geographical
location and setting of the country Increased flooding and water borne
hazards;
(92 percent runoff flows through 7 percent of Increased river bank erosion;
crop yield reduction;
the catchment area) Disruption of livelihood system;
damage of homesteads;
·
Monsoon climate (78
percent rainfall occurs in Damage
of towns; sedimentation in floodplains;
The Monsoon) Population
displacements
Water scarcity (dry season)
·
Upstream withdrawal for different uses Decline in river
water level , low stream flow; decline of
·
Low rainfall, gradual siltation in river beds, groundwater table; less
access to safe drinking water;
- Dry season irrigation; conflict among different users; navigation problem; quality issue
Surface Water: Wetlands
The United Nations Convention
(Ramsar, Iran, 1971) on Wetlands of International Importance defines wetlands
"areas of marshes, fen, peat, land or water, whether natural or
artificial, permanent or temporary, with
water that is static or flowing, fresh or brackish or salt, including
areas of marine water the depth of which at low tide does not exceed six
meters". Bangladesh
possesses enormous wetland areas. Some estimate the total area in between 7 to
8 million ha, or about 50 percent of the total land surface including estuaries
and the mangrove swamps i.e. the Sundarbans. However, a more realistic estimate
of wetlands in Bangladesh
covers an area of about 16,000 km2, or about 11 percent of the total area. The
principal wetland areas are the rivers and streams, freshwater lakes and
marshes including numerous fish ponds, haors, baors, beels and
jheels.
Figure 7.1: Fresh Water Wetlands Figure: Fresh Water
Lake; Source: Google image
Dimensions of Freshwater
Wetlands
River Systems: The river system
comprises mainly of tributaries and distributaries of the three major river
systems: the Ganges-Padma, the Brahmaputra-Jamuna, and the Meghna (GBM)
including some minor rivers in the southeast, scattered underground water
reservoirs as well as numerous wetlands- perennial and seasonal, like haors,
baors and beels mostly found in the northeast region with certain
exceptions. The river systems traverse
the country with a total length of about 24,140 km, covering nearly 7 percent
of the national territory, flowing down to the Bay of
Bengal. The total catchment area of the GBM river system is about
1.75 million km2, of which only 7.4 percent lies within Bangladesh covering about 87
percent of the total area of the country. The enormous discharge of the system is
greater than any other river system in the world with the exception of the
Amazon and the Congo.
The intricate network of GBM system carries a huge annual discharge of 1.5
million m3 per second to the Bay of Bangladesh, which is double the flow of the Mississipi River. However, one of the most
significant characteristic features of the freshwater ecosystem of Bangladesh is
the seasonal influence in water availability. There is often excessive water
during the monsoon season, causing frequent floods and water scarcity in the
dry season, leading to drought-like situation, particularly in the northwest
region of the country. During the lean season (February – April), the volume of
surface water flow is at its lowest level- often less than one-sixth of the
mean annual flow, creating widespread water shortage or drought. Even the
combined water flows at the mouth of the Meghna estuary in the lean season
become one-twentieth of the peak monsoon discharge.
Haors,
Baors, Beels, Jheels and Lakes: River system aside, freshwater wetlands are
found in different parts of the flood plains of Bangladesh. These are natural
depressions in the alluvial plain or ox-bow lakes locally known as haors,
baors,, beels and jheels, and occupy an area of 1,236 km2. The largest
of these are in the northeast, in the Sylhet Basin
consisting of 748 km2 or about 61 percent of the total wetland area of its
kind. About 27 percent of these static water bodies are found elsewhere in the
northeast, and another 10 percent are located in the southwest. Haors
are bowl-shaped depressions mostly of tectonic origin, occur between the
natural levees of rivers, and are subject to annual monsoon flooding. Generally
known as the Haor
Basin, these are largely
found in the Districts of Netrokona, Mymensingh and the Greater Sylhet region
e.g. Tanguar Haor, Hakaluki Haor. Beels are saucer-like
depressions that remain as perennial water bodies including a combination of
freshwater marshes, lakes and swamp forests as well as the deepest parts of
haors e.g. the Chalan Beel (now substantially shrunk due to human intervention)
in the Rajshahi, pabna and Bogra Districts. Baors or ox-bow lakes
are common in southwestern Bangladesh,
formed due to the detachment of a meander from the main stream/ river, while
Jheels are permanent freshwater bodies (marshes) of varying sizes.
During the monsoons as streams and rivers overflow their banks, the wetlands
get flooded, and as water
recedes after the flood, these retain the water. While some of these wetlands
dry up easily, others hold water throughout the year. Another source freshwater
is Kaptai Lake, which usually extends up to 742 km2 at the end of
the rainy season (October), and shrinks to 268 km2 at the end of the dry season
(April). There is another source of freshwater- the fish ponds. These are
numerous and scattered all over the country with a total water surface area of
about 1,800 km2.
Ecological and Economic
Importance
As an important component of
the freshwater ecosystems, freshwater wetlands are productive engines of inland
aquatic ecosystems, the importance of which has only recently been realized.
Freshwater wetlands serve the hydrologic functions of maintaining the
subsurface water table through recharging the aquifers. They also help in the
storage of excess water, and reduce the level of flooding by acting as buffers
against floods. It is the dynamic nature of the hydrology that influences the
productivity and diversity of wetland flora and fauna. In fact, the patterns of
activity in crop production, fisheries and transportation follow an annual
cycle of water from abundance to scarcity. The wetlands also perform other
important hydro-morphological functions: provide space for flood retention,
trap sediment, and facilitate the research of underground aquifer during the
wet season. Wetlands contain 10 to 14 percent of the global carbon, although
they occupy only 2 percent of the world's total area. Wetland soils such as peat are more
carboniferous than other types. Its sediments are consists of two strata:
aerobic (top stratum) and anaerobic (bottom stratum), and these play a very
important interactive role in the global cycling of carbon dioxide, sulphur,
nitrogen and phosphorus. Decomposed organic matters in the top aerobic layer
release carbon dioxide, while the bottom anaerobic decomposer release other
gases such as nitrogen, nitric oxide, hydrogen sulphide, Sulphur and methane
including carbon dioxide.
Wetlands are an important
element of biodiversity in Bangladesh,
having great significance- ecologically, economically and socially- at all
geographic scales (i.e. local, regional and national). Biologically, these are
the most productive freshwater ecosystems; nurseries and habitats of many types
of fish including migratory. Freshwater wetlands are also the breeding and
spawning grounds of many other species of fauna, and the nesting and wintering
grounds of many species of indigenous and migratory waterfowls. Of the
estimated 5,000 species of flowering plants, and 1,500 of vertebrate species,
wetlands are the home of some 300 plant, and around 400 vertebrate species in Bangladesh.
Wetlands also provide the habitat for a large variety of waterfowl- both
resident and migratory, including a number of endangered species. One study records (1993) that there are 282
freshwater wetland species of fauna in Bangladesh, representing 207 species of
birds (78 are migratory), 33 species of reptiles, 18 species of mammals, and 11
species of frogs and toads. Another study in the same year reports that there
are some 158 species of flora in the freshwater wetlands of Bangladesh
belonging to 49 families. These plants provide refuge to animals including
birds, source of fuelwood, timber, forage, thatching materials and medicinal
plants, as well as a good source for human food and cattle feed- livestock
fodder.
Among the other prime uses of freshwater
wetlands in Bangladesh,
fisheries are one of the most important categories- supplementing nutrition,
providing employment and generating income to a large segment of the
population. The inland capture fishery is based on the vast freshwater
resources of the country (covering an area of 4.3 million ha), with some 270
species of fin and shell fish. As the wetlands become interconnected with links
to the river channels during the rainy season, provide ideal spawning
(breeding) ground for a large number of fish species and migration. The haors,
baors, beels and jheels offer tremendous scope and potential for augmenting
freshwater fish production. Further, thousands of varieties of rice are found
in the freshwater wetlands of Bangladesh.
During the monsoon period, freshwater wetlands provide the locals with the more
easily accessible water transportation route. Moreover, people can derive
aesthetic benefits from its scenic beauty, e.g. Eco-tourism possibility the
Sundarbans. This could be a means of
generating income and obtaining employment for the locals. Finally, freshwater
wetlands support large number of population than any other ecosystem, and have
united the inhabitants into a coherent society, culture and life pattern, and
made them self-reliant with subsistence type of economy.
Degradation
Despite
all these essential economic goods, beneficial services and ecological
functions, degradation of wetlands has been going on in many parts of the world
including Bangladesh.
Tanguar Haor, an ecologically critical
area in the northeast region of Bangladesh,
is a good example of how freshwater wetlands are being degraded through
mismanagement. It is one of the last remaining habitats of rare and endangered
species of birds, and is the largest nesting ground of waterfowls in Bangladesh
(about 100,000 migratory birds come here every year. The
rivers of Bangladesh
are now shrinking as a consequence of so many man made causes. Rivers are being
encroached upon, deliberately filled up and are being expropriated by
land-grabbers as private property. Prominent rivers flowing past urban centres
are now under the illegal occupation of different interest groups. The channels
through which water are flowing become narrow; the stream flow slackens; the
raised riverbeds makes navigation difficult. The slackened flow and rapid
sedimentation of the riverbeds are indications that the rivers are dying. This
is a common sight along the river Padma. Dams across rivers although serve
multiple purpose (e.g. water for irrigation and drinking, recreation,
hydro-electricity production and fisheries development), the rivers on which
the dams are built are often degraded in various ways. Dams intercept the swift
flows of rivers, slow down the normal water flow and help the sedimentation
process within the reservoir and along the riverbanks. The Kaptai Lake
is a good example of such kind of dam on the Karnaphuli River.
Impact of Farakka
Barrage: Water resources management in Bangladesh is highly complicated by
the seasonality aspect. What is a scarce resource at one time of the year
becomes an abundant at another time. During the dry season (November to May),
as less water becomes available, more water is held back in the upstream by the
Farakka barrage. The inadequate flow of freshwater in the lower Ganges river
system due to upstream diversion has become a matter of serious concern for the
people living downstream areas; with the reduced stream flow, a large section
of rivers are usually dried up. This
diversion of water in the lean season is not only causing environmental damage,
but also weakening the agro-ecological resilience of the lower riparian areas
(LRA) of the Ganges, which is irreversible.
One of the most disastrous impacts of such reduction in freshwater flows is
evident by a marked increase in salinity- both in surface and ground waters,
particularly in the southwest coastal region of Bangladesh. Saline intrusion has
adverse impacts on freshwater ecosystems in the mangroves, and in the estuaries
of the GBM systems.
The impacts of water diversion
in the upstream are many and varied. The agricultural sector has been suffering
from water shortages in the farmland, depletion of soil moisture, and the
lowering of water table in aquifers (irrigation wells). A devastating impact
has also been felt in the forestry sub-sector; the mangrove forest of the Sundarban
(in southwest coast of Bangladesh)
is now confronted with a rapid biodiversity loss, as the equilibrium of the
natural ecosystem has been modified due to reduction of freshwater flow in the
upstream. In the lower reaches, reduced stream flow of the Ganges
in the dry season has increased salinity. With the fall of fresh water supply,
there is intrusion of seawater further inland. The low flow of water has also
caused a gradual decline of fish habitat in the LRA, with the drying up of
seasonal water bodies and the shrinkage of perennial wetland areas. The dam not
only hinders free movements of fish to upstream but also interrupt their
spawning migration. This seems to be the case for migratory Hilsa fish. The
decline in the stock of major varieties of carps in the Ganges-Padma river
system is identified to be the consequence of the construction of the Farakka
Barrage. Further, the decrease of the Ganges
water flows in the dry season has already resulted in a widespread
hydro-morphological change in rivers of the LRA. The extensive shoaling has
modified the channel morphology of the river with corresponding reduction in
navigability. In the rainy season (June to October), particularly when there is
heavy rainfall in the upstream, the opposite is occurred- over bank flow are
more common. This has not only caused an accelerated siltation of the riverbed,
but also has increased the intensity of floods in Bangladesh. As the reservoir is
unable to hold back all the water, a huge volume of water is released to protect
the areas in the upstream and to some extent save the dam itself. As the river
cannot quickly accommodate the sudden influx in the volume of water it has to
carry, there is often extensive and devastating flooding in the adjacent areas.
The swift current of the river even weakens the riverbanks, leading eventually
to bank erosion.
The freshwater
wetlands of Bangladesh
have been suffering greatly from the impacts of ever increasing population.
Growing demand for agricultural land along with the expansion of urban areas
and physical infrastructure has adversely affected the freshwater ecosystems.
Vast tracts of freshwater wetlands also have been lost over the years due flood
control, drainage and irrigation schemes in favour of rice fields, particularly
in the Haor basis and the Chalan Bill. Cropping patterns in these areas have
changed from local varieties to HYV Boro rice during the dry season. Shrinking
of freshwater wetlands has negatively affected the environment experiencing a
decrease in open water fish population, loss of biodiversity, and the gradual
decline in wetland-based employment opportunities. The flood protection
embankments have considerable modified the hydraulic regime- detrimental of
sustainable management of the freshwater ecosystems. The continual loss of
freshwater wetlands threatens the very ability of the to maintain the existing
life support systems- resulting in the reduction of wildlife habitat and
displacing the wetland-based rural livelihoods
Groundwater
in Bangladesh
Groundwater- an important component of the freshwater
ecosystems- is the most common source of domestic and irrigation requirements
in almost all the areas of Bangladesh.
The country is largely of deltaic origin with thick deposits of quaternary
alluvium. This particular nature of Bangladesh is found to be conducive
to the formation of large underground aquifers, with reasonably good storage
capacity that are fed by the GBM river systems, and direct infiltration of
rainfall, and monsoon flooding. During
the wet season there is abundant rainfall- the aquifers get recharged slowly as
water infiltrates downwards through layers of soil. There is also annual
flooding as vast tract of alluvial plain goes under water for an extended
period; further, there are numerous rivers, streams, lakes, ponds, and
wetlands. These conditions are sufficient to get groundwater recharged on a
regular basis provide that aquifer suitability are met.
As such, the potential for access to ground water in Bangladesh is
still high. The country is not only rich in its supply but also has water
reservoirs that are researched through monsoon rain, and thus replenished
annually. It is mainly in the rainy season when most replenishment occurs in
the form of recharge. This happens especially when excessive rainfall
facilitates deep percolation of water through the sub-soil into the groundwater
table. Heavy monsoon rain coupled with annual inundation aids the groundwater
to rise near to the surface level (except
in the northwest region during severe droughts). The groundwater recharge- from
monsoon rainfall and seasonal flooding- is often supplemented by the
percolation of water through river beds; as rivers and lakes fill up, water
percolates from the bottom of these water bodies and refills the aquifers.
However, during the dry season, the opposite usually occurs; the water level in
the rivers and lakes falls due to seasonal shortage, and water is discharged
naturally from the aquifers into these water bodies. Prolonged drought
condition also prevails in some years.
When the flow of the river is low, some of this groundwater flows back
into the rivers from aquifer. Further, the groundwater in the coastal belt has
varying levels of salinity; withdrawal of surface water in the upstream during
the dry season affects the level of groundwater in the country. The consequence
is a seasonal fall in the water table. It also increases the salinity of the
shallow aquifers in the coastal region.
There is also regional variation in groundwater storing
capacity and abstraction, which largely depends on the soil type of different
regions in the country. The depth varies from quite close to surface to about
150 meters below the surface. As such, annual recharge of aquifers may not be
uniform throughout the country. Aquifers
are generally poor in the Madhupur and the Barind Tracts where these are
recharged mainly through direct infiltration from rainfall. Groundwater-
though may be thought of as a renewable resource, it can no longer be
considered as such; it should be rather treated as an exhaustible resource. The
worldwide freshwater shortage attests to this reality. As we have already noted
above, groundwater is being used in the United States on an unsustainable
basis. In the case of Bangladesh
there is no exception. While consumption of groundwater is increasingly
rapidly, its supply remains limited.
Disputes over
Stock: Although the
geological structure produces excellent supplies of groundwater throughout the
country, the supply has not yet been accurately determined. There are disputes
among the experts regarding the total amount of economically extractable
groundwater. Over the past two decades or so, several assumptions of
groundwater resources in Bangladesh
have been made by organizations such as Master Plan Organization (MPO),
National Minor Irrigation Development Project (NMIDP) etc., but each with
different conclusions, mainly due to their differences in assumptions and
methodologies. Most estimates indicate that sufficient amounts of groundwater
are available to meet most projected irrigation demands, although deficiencies
may arise especially during the dry season. The answer to this question of
availability of groundwater lies in the estimate of annual groundwater
recharge.
The
first assessment of groundwater in Bangladesh was made in 1984.
Subsequently, the water Master Plan Organization (MPO), made three estimates in
1991: potential, useable and available recharge. The potential groundwater recharge in Bangladesh was
estimated in 1991 at 72,000 million m3. Useable recharge constitutes 75 percent
of the potential recharge or 54,000 million m3. Taking into account geographic
and physical constraints, MPO further reduced useable recharge to arrive at an
estimate of available recharge at 21,000 million m3. With the expansion of the
minor irrigation equipment's since the early 1990s, it had become necessary to
re-estimate the groundwater resources of Bangladesh during the formulation
of the National Water Management Plan (NWMP).
The
current estimate of groundwater recharge in Bangladesh is 22 billion m3/ year.
Despite varying estimates, there is a general agreement that Bangladesh will
continue to depend on the groundwater resource to meet its growing demand in
the domestic and agricultural sectors. Water experts believe that aquifer
conditions are generally favorable for storage in the Old Himalayan Piedmont
Plain, as well as in the Teesta, Brahmaputra-Jamuna and Ganges Floodplains.
However, near the coastal areas, particularly where tidal influence is strong,
groundwater is saline. In addition, the detection of arsenic in groundwater in
most parts of Bangladesh
since 1993 has completely modified possibility of groundwater.
Uses and Depletion: Because of its wide
availability, groundwater use in Bangladesh is quite extensive. As
the availability of surface water is not uniform- temporally and spatially,
irrigation methods using groundwater became the mainstay of the Green
Revolution in the early 1960s. In the past three decades or so, the consumptive
use of groundwater has increased tremendously; agriculture has become more and
more dependent on it. Overexploitation of groundwater in the agricultural
sector together with its rampant use by rural households, urban dwellers, and
the industries are depleting this natural resource base quite rapidly.
Overexploitation of the groundwater and its degradation are indications that
the resource is far from being used optimally.
There is an inter-generational effect of the use of groundwater, as the
amount withdrawn now will not be available in the future. This leads to the
question of sustainability, as much of the groundwater cannot be researched
once it is depleted; it has accumulated over a long period. For groundwater use
to be sustainable, replenishment must exceed the net quantity withdrawn from
the aquifer systems.
There
is evidence of depletion of groundwater in some areas of Bangladesh,
mainly for crop growing. The country widely practices methods of irrigation
that are dependent largely on groundwater, to meet the growing needs of
increased agricultural production- mostly boro rice. Deep Tubewell (DTW)
and Hand Tubewell (HTW) have traditionally been used for irrigating croplands.
Total irrigation coverage under these methods was estimated to be 2.81 million
hectares in 1996/97. It is expected that additional irrigation coverage of 2.23
million ha will take place under new technologies. However, groundwater being
used for purposes other than agriculture has certain advantages- because it is
of good quality, it is widely available, and it may be drawn conveniently at
specific site where it is to be used. Due to the growing demand for freshwater,
groundwater is being used without any regard to whether it is within the limit
of being replenished.
Hand
pumped tubewells are also being used to withdraw water for domestic uses.
Majority of the people in rural Bangladesh
now have access to HTW for drinking water. The government have plans to further
increase the number HTWs in the rural areas to provide potable water,
particularly with the help of UN specialized agencies such as UNICEF. Urban
areas too, particularly the metropolis of Dhaka and Chittagong depend on groundwater for their
water supply to a great extent. The problems in the urban areas are also acute.
Because of the limited capacity of the local development authorities e.g.
Chittagong Development Authority (CDA) and the Chittagong City Corporation
(CCC) to meet the demand for water, the city dwellers themselves had sunk
numerous HTWs on their own initiatives without the prior approval of the
appropriate city authority.
Impacts:
Since 95 percent of the drinking water in Bangladesh is derived from
groundwater sources, increased abstractions to meet growing demands are likely
to cause environmental problems such as lowering water table and saline
intrusion. Bangladesh
is now facing the adverse effects of such extensive use. Heavy dependence on
groundwater for domestic, agricultural, and other uses has led to the depletion
of this scarce resource. The water table in many parts of Bangladesh has
fallen below the suction level of the tube wells. There are reports of a fall
in the subsurface water table by 1 to 4.5 meters in different areas of Bangladesh,
during different month of the year 1999. In the North
Bengal, particularly in the District of Rajshahi alone, around
50,000 HTWs were reported to have become dry because of the falling of water
table
in the same year. According to a national daily report on March 1999, the
groundwater level in Rajshahi was reported to fallen below 23 meters. Another
consequence of aquifer depletion is saltwater
intrusion. Along the coastline, overuse of freshwater reservoirs often
allows saltwater to intrude into aquifers used for domestic and agricultural
purposes.
Moreover,
groundwater utilization in Bangladesh
has now moved from entirely government control to the private sector. Due to
uncontrolled operation and over-withdrawal, the water table in and around Chittagong Metropolitan
City (CMC) had fallen by 2,5 meters. Due
to the similar reasons, the groundwater level of Dhaka Metropolitan City (DMC)
was reported by a national influential daily in January 1999 to be falling by 1
meter annually. As fall in water table leads to subsidence of land, in DMC,
between 1968 and 1990, land subsidence was reported to be up to 6 cm. With the
assumption that water table has gone further down, it is most likely that
subsidence may have increased.
The
problem of arsenic contamination of groundwater (Chapter - ) and its linkage with heavy abstraction of
groundwater necessitated a re-thinking of the strategy to supply safe water
from surface sources. The twin problems of groundwater depletion and
contamination (discussed in Chapter ….water pollution) are the challenges of
the 21st Century that Bangladesh has to confront with.
How Bangladesh
will handle the problems will very much depend on the strategy for survival;
water planners are now in a dilemma to resolve the problems.
Water Resource Management
River Systems: Prior to any
watershed projects such as the construction of a dam or a barrage across a
river is undertaken, an appropriate environmental impact assessment should be
carried out. Any negative impacts arising form such projects should be taken
into consideration including the assurance of mitigating measures. Countries
sharing common rivers should manage their resources in a manner that maximizes
not only their own welfare but also the welfare of the region as a whole. The
problem of water scarcity with India
will have to be resolved on a mutually rewarding basis. The Ganges Water
Sharing Treaty with India
signed on 12 December 1996 ensures sharing of water on 50:50, provided that the
availability of water at Farakka is 70,000 cusecs or less. This is a landmark treaty of 30 years; similar
treaties for other joint rivers are also important for resolving our water
crisis.
Watershed Conversion: Watershed conservation and management are
economically and environmentally sound ways to prevent flood damage and store
water for future use than building huge dams and reservoirs. In the United States, for instance, after disastrous
floods in the upper Mississippi
Valley in 1993, it was
suggested that flood plain areas should be reserved for water storage, aquifer
research, wildlife habitat, and agriculture rather than allowing residential,
commercial and industrial development. It was thought that sound farming and
forestry practices can reduce runoff; retaining crop residues on fields reduces
flooding, and minimizing plowing and forest cutting on steep slopes protects
watersheds. Similarly, wetlands conservation preserves natural water storage
and aquifer research zones. A series of small dams that can be built with
simple equipment and local labor on tributary streams can eliminate the need for
massive construction projects. These have the capacity to hold water before it
becomes a mighty flood.
Domestic Conservation: One could save as much as half of the water one now
use for domestic purposes without bringing great changes in his/ her lifestyles.
Simple steps such as stopping leaks, taking shorter showers, washing cloths and
dishes as efficiently as possible can make a big difference in minimizing the
water shortages that many authorities predict. For urban dwellers, the use of
conserving appliances, such as low-volume showerheads, efficient dishwashers
and washing machines, can reduce water consumption to a large extent. Other
largest urban domestic water use is toilet flushing. In the United States,
for instance, each person uses about 50,000 l (13,000 gal) of drinking-quality
water annually to flush toilets. This is more than one-third of the total
amount supplied to American homes each year.
Industrial and Agricultural Conservation: Perhaps half of agricultural water used is lost
through leaks in irrigation canals, application to wrong areas, runoff, and
evaporation. Better farming practices including techniques such as minimum
tillage, leaving crop residue on fields, ground cover on drainage ways and
inter-cropping could reduce these water losses dramatically. Nearly half of all
water use is for cooling electric power plants and other industrial facilities.
Some of this water use could be avoided by installing dry cooling systems
similar to the radiator of a car.
Price Mechanism: Water has traditionally been used as if there were an endless supply.
Local water supply authorities charge customers only for the immediate costs of
delivery. The cost of building water supply projects is usually subsidized, and
the discount value of future supplies and foregone opportunities is ignored. In
California’s Central
Valley, for example, farmers pay only about one-tenth of what
costs the government to supply water to them. The subsidy represented by this
under priced water averaged almost $500,000 per farm annually in some areas.
Much of the water supplied by the Federal projects is used to grow crops and
there is little incentive for farmers to practice efficient use. In developing
countries the supply is almost at a nominal cost or free. Some participatory
price can be introduced for efficient service delivery and as recovery cost.
Wetland Management: In Bangladesh,
much of the freshwater wetlands are either being degraded or lost to
agriculture. The environmental values of these static water bodies should be
recognized on a priority basis and public awareness should be heightened
regarding their conservation. The government should enact laws and implement
programs for their conservation and protection. The first
and foremost step in this approach is to determine which of the freshwater
wetlands have the highest socio-economic value in their present status. As it
is often difficult to separate ecologically sensitive areas from those of less
important one (adjoining areas), the protective measures need to be undertaken
within the framework of national planning. Instead of planning to protect all
the freshwater wetlands, it is lot easier to begin with the ecologically
sensitive ones. As no single strategy is likely to be successful for conserving
the freshwater wetlands of Bangladesh in the short-run, the environmental
management should consider at least the three elements most experts believe: i)
a moratorium of development for a few selected freshwater wetlands that are
ecologically sensitive, ii) inclusion of environmental mitigation plan in
development projects, and iii) restoration of degraded but important freshwater
wetlands. In this regard, one of the major components of the Environmental Conservation Act
(1995) is the declaration of “ecologically critical areas”, and restriction of
the operation and process that can be carried on or cannot be initiated in
these designated areas in noteworthy.
However, the overall management system of freshwater
wetlands in Bangladesh
is far from being satisfactory. According to many commentators, the existing
legislation in Bangladesh
is terribly inadequate for sustainable development of freshwater wetlands, and
require systematic re-assessment including updating at regular intervals.
Although the Wetlands Conservation Act, which was enacted by the Parliament in
2000, seeks to preserve wetlands already designated, the law needs further
refinement in redefining freshwater wetlands to avoid confusion and
misinterpretation in strengthening its enforceability. In doing so, key sites
where bio-physical conditions influence vast tract of freshwater wetlands have
to be identified on a priority basis. Examples of such sites may include areas
already visited by internationally migrating waterfowl, refuges of brood-stock
fish, and habitats by type of stands, and threatened species. For nesting
birds, disturbance-free zones have also to be identified as sanctuary. The
local residents and the concerned authorities need to be aware and sensitive
towards the importance of these sanctuaries through conservation education
programs. Demand for wildlife products can be met by setting up pilot breeding centers of suitable indigenous species, and expanding successful projects to
other areas. The threatened species also needs to be identified, and steps be
taken to protect them through in situ and ex situ conservation measures. Focus
should be given to exploring the possibility of waste water reduction and
recycling in combination with fish aquaculture. A truly effective policy regarding protection of the
freshwater wetlands would also need the cooperation of stakeholders who use or
manage these wetlands for different purposes. Any Any development project
encompassing the wetlands should be undertaken with proper Environmental Impact
assessment. Degraded hoar basins need to be stabilized; environmental education
relevant to natural resources management should be emphasized.
Groundwater Management: Groundwater helps to maintain the flow of rivers,
streams and lakes. The volume of water available in the aquifers depends
largely on the rate of recharge. Any withdrawal of groundwater for domestic,
agricultural and industrial uses should, therefore, keep in mind that the rate
of recharge does not exceed. Otherwise, there will be depletion of this very important
natural resource base. From a geographic perspective, groundwater recharge areas must be identified on a priority basis.
Natural depressions such as haors, baors and beels
are useful fresh water storage areas. Draining water out from these areas for
agricultural purposes may not be a rational practice at all. Recharge basins
allow the stored water to gradually infiltrate into the ground and help to
replenish aquifer. Appropriate measures should be taken to aid aquifer recharge
capacities. This may be possible by channeling wastewater and surface runoffs
into designated recharge basins.
As much of the groundwater cannot be recharged
immediately once it is depleted, some sort of conservation strategy should be
adopted to preserve this resource. All sectors using this resource can find
solution to conserve it in their own ways.
As already mentioned above, agriculture is the major sector using
groundwater for the irrigation. However, much of the water used is either
wasted or lost through seepage and evaporation. Improved methods such as drip
irrigation over spray irrigation, covering of drainage channels to prevent
evaporation and lining with polystyrene sheets to prevent seepage can certainly
replace wasteful techniques. Heavy dependence on groundwater should be reduced.
Increased dependence on surface water as a potentially renewable source will be
a useful step towards conservation of groundwater.
Withdrawal of river water by building dams across the
rivers or diverting water flows through channels in the upstream may enhance
water supply in the area. However, the reduced water flow in the downstream
especially during the dry season adversely affects the groundwater resource
there. Such is the case of Bangladesh
as a lower riparian country. Water sharing treaties such as the one already
signed for the Ganges
River is an imperative
measure may be considered as a role model for all other common rivers.
Much of the water used by municipalities and
industries can be recovered through recycling- need proper treatment before it
can be used again. People themselves can contribute a lot by changing their
wasteful habits e. g. keep their faucets running whilst brushing their teeth,
shaving beards, washing cloths, scrubbing pots and pans etc. People seldom care about their dripping
faucets or leaking pipes or overflow of upland water reservoirs. Easy
availability of piped water and its low price in most urban areas mislead
people into thinking that the supply is inexhaustible. In areas where there is
huge shortage of water, people gradually learn to conserve.
National
Water Policy
The
government of Bangladesh
has an established tradition of planning in the water sector. The First
National Water Plan was prepared in 1986 under the newly created Water Master
Plan Organization (MPO), which has done extensive work on quantification of
both surface and groundwater. A new set of reports called the Second National
Water Plan was launched in 1991. However, the extensive floods of 1987 and 1988
overshadowed further work on a national scale, and gave rise to the Flood
Action Plan (FAP). Though some elements
of FAP were found positive, dissatisfaction with its approach led to its abrupt
termination in 1997, which eventually paved the way for a more comprehensive approach.
Keeping this end in view, the donors, led by the World Bank prepared a report
in 1998 entitled "Steps Towards a New National Water Plan", which was
received favorably by the government, donors and NGOs. A major achievement of
the new plan was the National Water Policy (NWP), which was formulated in the
same year. The policy strongly emphasized issues of economic, social and
environmental sustainability. According to some authors, it has been hailed as
the best policy document issues by any ministry in the government. The goal of
the policy is to ensure progress towards fulfilling national goals of economic
development, poverty alleviation, food security, public health and sanitation,
decent standard of living for the people, and protection of the natural
environment. The main objectives of NWP,
set out as guiding principles are to:
- address issues related
to the development of all forms of water- surface and underground, and
management of these resources in an efficient and equitable manner;
- ensure the
availability of water to all groups of society including the poor and the
disadvantaged, and to take into account the particular needs of women and
children;
- accelerate development
of public and private water delivery systems on a sustainable basis with
legal measures and financial incentives, including delineation of
boundaries for water rights and pricing;
- bring institutional
changes that are likely to help decentralize the management system of
water resources, and enhance the role of women in water management;
- develop a regulatory
environment under legal framework that will aid the process of
decentralization, sound environmental management, and will eventually
improve the investment climate for
the private sector in water resources development and management; and
- develop a state of the
art technology and knowledge base that will enable the country to redesign
future water management plans with more economic efficiency, gender
equity, social justice, and environmental awareness through broad public participation.
The
NWP is expected to provide guidance to all concerned agencies and institutions
related to the water sector in ensuring the achievement of specific policy
objectives. The NWP recognized that the governance and management of the water
resources require a great deal of effort, particularly in coordinating the
tasks of existing institutions, and in some cases, reform including the
creation of new community based organizations. The two most important
recommendations that have been put forwarded are: i) there should be separation
of policy, planning and regulatory function at each level of the government;
and ii) each institution must be held responsible for financial and operational
performance. The NWP also recognized that an appropriate legislative framework
is a prerequisite to effective implementation of the water policy. The
government has already been urged to enact a National Water Code revising and
consolidating the laws governing ownership, development, appropriation,
utilization, conservation and protection of water resources. The NWP so far has
provided the basic framework for the formulation of the National Water
Management Plan (NWMP) in 1998 under the Ministry of Water Resources. The Water
Resources Planning Organization (WARPO) has guided the preparation of NWMP by
consultants, which was finalized by the end of 2001. The plan is expected to
deal with three time horizons: short-term ( up to 2005), medium-term
(2005-2010), and long-term (2010-2025).
